Technical complexity, task variability and analyzability, and task Case Study

Technical complexity, task variability and analyzability, and task interdependence of MRA Associates - Case Study Example Although not all its local offices have experts in each of the three issues it handles most of them have at least one. MRA Associates engages in a number of tasks as it seeks to achieve its business goals. In order to find solutions to environmental challenges, the company engages its experts to design and implement solutions. They analyze the problems and come up with procedures that are able to solve them. This implies that the tasks are highly analyzable. The fact that the company encounters and develops solutions for different types of environmental problems means that its tasks vary highly. The company handles environmental issues; industrial wastewater treatment, groundwater contamination, and biohazards cleanup. These issues involve a variety of activities all aimed at ensuring that the environment is kept clean. Industrial wastewater produced as by-products of many factories would end up contaminating groundwater if not treated. In addition, biohazards also contaminate groundwater if not properly handled. The company’s tasks are so interrelated that sometimes they cut across geographic locations. Employees from different profit centers or departments have to consult each other and share resources (Ciaran, 2012). This has prompted the company to seek he services of account managers to handle such cases. There are instances where the top management of the company comes in to iron out differences between regional managers and account

Discuss the various reactions that the Choragos and Chorus undergo Essay

Discuss the various reactions that the Choragos and Chorus undergo throughout the play at various key points in Oedipus Rex - Essay Example Character development through the first part of the play allows the writer to introduce desired qualities and attributed related to the role played by that character later. In this case, it makes it easier to develop and maintain a given theme within the major sections of the tragedy. Oedipus Rex Play comprise of categorized characters each assuming an inherent role in depicting an actual ancient Greek society. In this context, one character in the play is Chorus, also commonly referred to as Choragus in plural. Within the play, Chorus refers to a group of elders representing the voice of society in general. In the event of response and reactions, Chorus addresses the theatre as an individual. However, the voice of that individual incorporates responses of all the other elders making up that team. Chorus acts as the judge or a third party reflecting on developments taking place within the play (Ley 12). The group questions the moral and philosophical inclination of other characters i n the play. In addition, the group advice kings and other leaders in authority during decision making process. Chorus possesses theatrical freedom since their role as a group can operate both within and outside the plot’s boundaries. ... As stated earlier, Sophocles develops distinct character traits at the beginning of the play. The tragedy adopts and maintains these developed characters in creating defined and sustainable themes throughout the plot development. With respect to Chorus, the group reacts to plot subjects in an almost consistent manner. As representatives of the larger society, Chorus inclines their objective responses to desires of peace and stability within the subject society. Chorus vehemently disapproves actions of Antigone’s brother in their struggle for leadership positions. Within the first section of the play, Chorus reactions support Antigone’s actions and decisions. Creon, who was the King as this part of the play, gave a decree preventing any member of the kingdom from staging a burial ceremony for Polynices. According to the king, Polynices proved their disloyalty and betrayed the empire; hence does not deserve respect even at burial (Sophocles 201). At this section, Chorus r eacts to Creon’s decree by insinuating that the new king plans to abuse power. The group of elders emphasize on the importance of respecting the law of the land and those of gods by leaders. At the beginning, Chorus praises Creon and the Greek people at large on the manner in which man can achieve desired goals through concerted efforts. The group illustrates man’s ability by describing the manner in which Greek men tamed horses, snared birds and cross vast seas during winter (Sophocles 36). However, the tone of their ode changes towards the end of this first part. Chorus reacts by insinuating that man can misuse power in a manner likely to compromise law of gods and that of the

Consumer Decision-Making Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Consumer Decision-Making Process - Essay Example This necessity or want could be triggered by wanting to satisfy a need which arises due to internal stimuli, such as thirst, hunger, etc. (Anonymous). This need can also be sparked by external stimuli such as advertisements, or when your friend buys a new car or a new pair of shoes. At this stage, online marketers should make effective use of the internet to stimulate recognition of this need (Philip Kotler, 2009). They generally start off by collecting information from consumers, about their lifestyles, the products they use, important events in their lives, through online surveys and questionnaires. In the internet world, customers tend to search for pages that they want to browse through. Marketers use the traditional method of using banners and ads to attract customers. Some even use pop-up sites to get the consumer’s attention. A study conducted by IIfeld and Winer showed that about 88 internet companies got frequent hits online due to banner advertising (Limbada, 2006). Online Companies such as amazon.com and easyjet.com use this technique effectively. Not only does it use animated banners and images, Amazon displays links such as â€Å"what customers are looking for† and â€Å"best-sellers†, which could arouse a certain need in the customer. Another need recognition technique could include responding to keywords on search engines. When a customer types a keyword such as ‘airline’ on google.com, Emirates or Air Canada are usually the first two options that appear on the search list. This search list order could be a vital technique for marketing. If the customer initially wanted to travel via Qatar Airways, but the search list brought Emirates on the top, the customer could decide to Emirates instead. Discussion blogs in newsgroups etc. could also help catch the eye of the consumer. Information Search begins once a consumer has identified his need. There are various ways to search for information regarding the product tha t the consumer wants to purchase. By searching, he can find out all his options, the various brands that are available, the different prices, design, etc. (Krishnamurthy, 2006).The extensiveness of this search depends upon how valuable this product is. If, for example, the customer wants a camera, he will research more rigorously about the various alternatives that are available. This way the customer gathers a whole bank of information and companies such as auto trader help direct the customer towards the choice the suits him the most.

Measuring Patient Dependency in Clinical Settings

Measuring Patient Dependency in Clinical Settings Title: Should patient dependency be used to set nurse-staffing levels in general hospital wards? Introduction: In this section, we perform a literature review to discuss patient dependency in clinical settings, and examine how we can measure patient dependency levels. We also discuss whether patient dependency levels should and could form the criteria for setting nurse-staffing levels in the hospital. We will also analyze the other different methods and criteria that can help to determine nurse staffing levels within the clinical setting. Patient dependency levels indicates the requirements of nurses and the extent to which patients will need nurses for their continuous care. Nurse patient ratios are often used to discuss the nurse staffing levels and these figures indicate whether staffing levels have to be increased or decreased. We would aim our discussion of patient dependency necessitating increase in staffing levels and the patient nurse ratio as indicators of nurse staffing both within general hospital wards and at critical care and emergency units. Evidential Information Patient dependency may just form an important part of nursing staff and workload of an individual nurse. Hurst (2005) conducted an important study on the nature and value of dependency acuity quality (DAQ) demand side nursing workforce-planning methods, which are set in the context of nursing workforce planning and development. Extensive DAQ data was obtained from UK nursing workforce in 347 wards, which involved 64 high quality, and 62 low quality hospital wards. The study gives special consideration to workload and quality contexts. New insights have been generated with this study and Hurst emphasizes that poor quality care is more common in larger wards that have fluctuating and unstable workload and nurse – patient ratio. Smaller workloads having consistent and high workload of nursing staff results in inflexible nurse staffing so staff levels and performed duties remain the same. Studies definitely suggest that nursing activity and staffing differences do form an importan t part of defining and contributing to the quality of the wards with higher staffing levels and more consistent work for nurses at high quality wards and lower staffing levels and irregular services with low nurse-patient ratio in low quality wards. From this evidence, it is possible to provide recommendations for nursing management and practice and probe into more accurate relations of dependency acuity quality in DAQ measures. In a study using assessment of patient nurse dependency systems for determining nurse-patient ratio in the ICU and HDU, Adomat et al (2004) point out that a huge range of patient classification systems or tools are used in critical care units to inform workforce planning, and nursing workload although the application of these methods may not always be relevant, complete or appropriate. The systems or tools used for patient classification and categorization were developed solely for the purpose of more efficient distribution of patient across hospital sections, although now the same systems are used for workforce planning, distribution of workload, determining nurse-patient ratio in critical care settings. However these changes can raise a number of issues related to workforce planning, staffing levels and nursing management in general. Adomat and Hewison evaluate the three main assessment systems used in critical care units to effectively determine the necessary nurse-patient ratio t hat can provide the best quality service in the wards. The application of these tools is to enhance the quality of care by keeping nurse-patient ratio at its optimum. The authors suggest that decisions relating to workload planning and determining the nurse patient ratio are dependent on an understanding of the origins and purpose of the classificatory tools that categorizes patients and measures their dependency on care services. Patient dependency and classification systems as well as patient dependency scoring systems for severity of illness are measures indicating mortality and morbidity although Adomat points out that these dependency measure may not be real indicators or determinants of the nurse-patient ratio that help in measuring nursing input. The costs of providing a nursing service within critical care uses nursing intensity measures to give a framework for nursing management and patient care and also determines the exact role of patient dependency in nurse staffing leve ls. However, components of the nursing role and how it determines standards of care have not been fully determined (Adomat and Hewison, 2004). They point out that careful consideration of patient dependency and classification systems may be necessary to plan, organize and provide a cost effective critical care service. In a similar study, Adomat and Hicks (2003) evaluates the nursing workload in intensive care a there is a growing shortage of nurses in these care units. The problem identified in this shortage lies in the method for calculating the nurse/patient ratio using the Nurse Workload Patient Category scoring and classificatory system use in most intensive care units. The nurse-patient ratio is determined by using the patient category or dependency scales and the general assumption is that the more critically ill a patient is, the more care and nursing time will be required for the patient. Many critically ill patients placed on a high level of mechanical care such as a feeding or ventilator tube and in intensive units may however require less direct personal nursing care than patients who are self ventilating or have been considered to have lower levels of dependence. Thus patient dependence may be addressed by means other than direct nursing care and artificial care and support systems may b used instead of nursing staff. These and other factors show that patent dependency may not be a completely relevant measure for determining nurse –patient ratio or nurse staffing levels and many associate factors have to be considered. This study by Adomat and Hicks use a video recorder to document nurse activity in 48 continuous shifts within two intensive care units and helped to determine the accuracy of the Nursing Workload Patient Category scoring system to measure nurse workload. The data obtained from the video of nurse activity was then correlated with the Patient category scale score that was allocated to the patient by the nurse in charge. The results of this study showed that the nursing skills required in these care units were of low skill type despite the needs of care being complex in general. It was found that nurses spent less time with patients who were categorized as in need of intensive care than those in need and in high dependency range in all units. T he findings indicate that existing nurse patient ratio classifications are inappropriate as nurses spend less and less time with critically ill patients. The authors expose the flaws of classification or scaling systems that tend to correlate care with critical illness. They suggest that radical reconsideration of nursing levels and skills mix should make it possible to increase provisions and levels of intensive care providing the right numbers of staff at the appropriate units where patients need them most suggesting more flexible and alternative approaches to the use of nurse-patient ratios. In a similar study discussing relationship between workload, skill mix and staff supervision, Tibby et al (2004) proposes a systems approach and suggests that hospital adverse events or AE are more likely when sub-optimal working conditions occur. Proper working conditions are thus absolutely necessary to ensure the smooth working of the clinical setting. Tibby and colleagues analyzed the adverse events in a pediatric intensive care unit using a systems approach and observational study to investigate the association between the occurrence of these adverse events and latent risk factors including temporal workload, supervision issues, skills mix, nurse staffing and the interactions between established clinically related risk factors (Tibby et a, 2004). The data was collected form 730 nursing shifts and the analysis was done with logistic regression modeling. The rate of adverse events was 6 for every hundred patient days and the factors associated with increased AE including day shift , patient dependency, number of occupied beds, and simultaneous management related issues although these were considerably decreased with enhanced supervisory ability of the nurses. Decreased number of adverse events have been found to be related to the presence of a senior nurse in charge, high proportion of shifts handled by rostered, trained, permanent staff and the presence of junior doctors. Patient workload factors such as bed occupancy and the extent to which the patient needs help and nursing supervisory levels and level of staffing such as presence of a senior nurse have been found to be associated. This study sheds light on the factors increasing or decreasing adverse events and helps in identifying the issues closely related to the need of regulating and optimizing nurse staffing levels. As we have already suggested through a study by Adomat and Hicks, patients in high dependency units may require more frequent nursing care and higher nurse-patient ratios than critical care units where patients may be supported by artificial methods. According to a study by Garfield et al (2000) high dependency units are increasing in the hospitals and becoming more important as part of a hospital’s facilities. Although the optimum staffing ratio for patients is unknown for such units, the Department of Health and Intensive Care Society recommend a level of one nurse for every two patients. Garfield et al recorded Therapeutic Intervention Scoring System scores and Nurse Dependency Scores in high dependency units over 7 months. The results indicated a weak correlation between nurse dependency score and therapeutic intervention scoring system score. The authors argue that a nurse-patient ratio of 1:2 may be insufficient for the management of a high dependency unit and based on t heir findings recommends a nurse to patient ratio of 2:3. Balogh (1992) points out that the literature on audits of nursing care shows a strong relation between the quality of nursing care provided and nursing labour force and staffing issues. Balogh suggests that all assumptions for setting nurse staffing levels on the basis of variations in patient dependency are unscientific and there are moreover no opportunities to use personal judgment in decision-making within hospitals to determine nurse-patient ratios. Balogh points out that such methods for determining staffing levels as well as audit instruments are outdated and insufficient to optimize service levels. The paper highlights the need for greater flexibility, more decision making power, and a more significant role of nurses’ personal judgment in selection and management of appropriate nurse staffing levels in dependency and critical care units. Conclusion: In this review of literature on the exact role of patient dependency in determining nurse staffing levels, we began by suggesting that it is generally believed that the more critical condition a patient is in, the higher the requirements of direct care suggesting that nurse patient ratio should be high in critical care units. This assumption however has been refuted by studies which shows that such clear criteria may not be sufficient for nurse management and staffing level decisions and other factors have to be considered. These include artificial means of life support and other mechanical devices that minimizes the need for manual staffing and reduces a critical patient’s nursing needs. A related study suggested that high dependency units rather than critical care units should be provided with higher levels of staffing although many other factors such as supervisory levels of senior nurses, skills available and already established method of determining nurse patient ratios s eem to be crucial factors. Along with the approach taken by several authors we can also suggest that personal judgment of nurses on the care needed by patients rather than inflexible scaling or scoring systems should be used by hospitals to determine staffing levels, considering patient dependency levels as well. Bibliography Adomat R, Hicks C. Measuring nursing workload in intensive care: an observational study using closed circuit video cameras. J Adv Nurs. 2003 May;42(4):402-12. Adomat R, Hewison A. Assessing patient category/dependence systems for determining the nurse/patient ratio in ICU and HDU: a review of approaches. J Nurs Manag. 2004 Sep;12(5):299-308. Ruth Balogh Audits of nursing care in Britain: A review and a critique of approaches to validating them International Journal of Nursing Studies, Volume 29, Issue 2, May 1992, Pages 119-133 The importance of data in verifying nurse staffing requirements Intensive Care Nursing, Volume 4, Issue 1, March 1988, Pages 21-23 Lynne Callaway and Edward Major Curtis C. A system of measurement of patient dependency and nurse utilization. Aust Nurses J. 1977 Apr;6(10):36-8, 42. Donoghue J, Decker V, Mitten-Lewis S, Blay N. Critical care dependency tool: monitoring the changes. Aust Crit Care. 2001 May;14(2):56-63. Garfield M, Jeffrey R, Ridley S. An assessment of the staffing level required for a high-dependency unit. Anaesthesia. 2000 Feb;55(2):137-43. Hurst K. Relationships between patient dependency, nursing workload and quality. Int J Nurs Stud. 2005 Jan;42(1):75-84. Hearn CR, Hearn CJ. A study of patient dependency and nurse staffing in nursing homes for the elderly in three Australian states. Community Health Stud. 1986;10(3 Suppl):20s-34s. Miller A. Nurse/patient dependencyis it iatrogenic? J Adv Nurs. 1985 Jan;10(1):63-9. OBrien GJ. The intuitive method of patient dependency. Nurs Times. 1986 Jun 4-10;82(23):57-61. Prescott PA, Ryan JW, Soeken KL, Castorr AH, Thompson KO, Phillips CY. The Patient Intensity for Nursing Index: a validity assessment. Res Nurs Health. 1991 Jun;14(3):213-21. Seelye A. Hospital ward layout and nurse staffing. J Adv Nurs. 1982 May;7(3):195-201. Tibby SM, Correa-West J, Durward A, Ferguson L, Murdoch IA. Adverse events in a paediatric intensive care unit: relationship to workload, skill mix and staff supervision. Intensive Care Med. 2004 Jun;30(6):1160-6. Epub 2004 Apr 6. Williams A. Dependency scoring in palliative care. Nurs Stand. 1995 Oct 25-31;10(5):27-30. For scoring systems Depatment of health – www.dh.gov.uk

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) :: Research Essays Papers

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) There are different characteristics that accompany FAS in the different stages of a child's life. "At birth, infants with intrauterine exposure to alcohol frequently have low birth rate; pre-term delivery; a small head circumference; and the characteri stic facial features of the eyes, nose, and mouth" (Phelps, 1995, p. 204). Some of the facial abnormalities that are common of children with FAS are: microcephaly, small eye openings, broad nasal bridge, flattened mid-faces, thin upper lip, skin folds at the corners of the eyes, indistinct groove on the upper lip, and an abnormal smallness of the lower jaw (Wekselman, Spiering, Hetteberg, Kenner, & Flandermeyer, 1995; Phelps, 1995). These infants also display developmental delays, psychomotor retardatio n, and cognitive deficits. As a child with FAS progresses into preschool physical, cognitive and behavioral abnormalities are more noticeable. These children are not the average weight and height compared to the children at the same age level. Cognitive manifestations is another problem with children who have FAS. "Studies have found that preschoolers with FAS generally score in the mentally handicapped to dull normal range of intelligence" (Phelps, 1995, p. 205). Children with FAS usually h ave language delay problems during their preschool years. Research has also shown that these children exhibit poorly articulated language, delayed use of sentences or more complex grammatical units, and inadequate comprehension (Phelps, 1995). There are many behavioral characteristics that are common among children with FAS. The most common characteristic is hyperactivity (Phelps, 1995). "Hyperactivity is found in 85% of FAS-affected children regardless of IQ" (Wekeselman et al., 1995, p. 299 ). School failure, behavior management difficulties, and safety issues are some of the problems associated with hyperactivity and attention deficit disorder. Another behavioral abnormality of with children with FAS, is social problems. "Specific diffic ulties included inability to respect personal boundaries, inappropriately affectionate, demanding of attention, bragging, stubborn, poor peer relations, and overly tactile in social interactions" (Phelps, 1995, p. 206). Children are sometimes not diagnosed with FAS until they reach kindergarten and are in a real school setting. School-aged children with FAS still have most of the same physical and mental problems that were diagnosed when they were younger. The craniofa cial malformations is one of the only physical characteristic that diminishes during late childhood (Phelps, 1995). "Several studies have evaluated specific areas of cognitive dysfunction in school-age children exposed prenatally to alcohol. Researchers have substantiated: (a) short term memory deficits in verbal and visual material; (b) inadequate processing of inf ormation, reflected b sparse integration of information and poor quality of responses; (c) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) :: Research Essays Papers Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) There are different characteristics that accompany FAS in the different stages of a child's life. "At birth, infants with intrauterine exposure to alcohol frequently have low birth rate; pre-term delivery; a small head circumference; and the characteri stic facial features of the eyes, nose, and mouth" (Phelps, 1995, p. 204). Some of the facial abnormalities that are common of children with FAS are: microcephaly, small eye openings, broad nasal bridge, flattened mid-faces, thin upper lip, skin folds at the corners of the eyes, indistinct groove on the upper lip, and an abnormal smallness of the lower jaw (Wekselman, Spiering, Hetteberg, Kenner, & Flandermeyer, 1995; Phelps, 1995). These infants also display developmental delays, psychomotor retardatio n, and cognitive deficits. As a child with FAS progresses into preschool physical, cognitive and behavioral abnormalities are more noticeable. These children are not the average weight and height compared to the children at the same age level. Cognitive manifestations is another problem with children who have FAS. "Studies have found that preschoolers with FAS generally score in the mentally handicapped to dull normal range of intelligence" (Phelps, 1995, p. 205). Children with FAS usually h ave language delay problems during their preschool years. Research has also shown that these children exhibit poorly articulated language, delayed use of sentences or more complex grammatical units, and inadequate comprehension (Phelps, 1995). There are many behavioral characteristics that are common among children with FAS. The most common characteristic is hyperactivity (Phelps, 1995). "Hyperactivity is found in 85% of FAS-affected children regardless of IQ" (Wekeselman et al., 1995, p. 299 ). School failure, behavior management difficulties, and safety issues are some of the problems associated with hyperactivity and attention deficit disorder. Another behavioral abnormality of with children with FAS, is social problems. "Specific diffic ulties included inability to respect personal boundaries, inappropriately affectionate, demanding of attention, bragging, stubborn, poor peer relations, and overly tactile in social interactions" (Phelps, 1995, p. 206). Children are sometimes not diagnosed with FAS until they reach kindergarten and are in a real school setting. School-aged children with FAS still have most of the same physical and mental problems that were diagnosed when they were younger. The craniofa cial malformations is one of the only physical characteristic that diminishes during late childhood (Phelps, 1995). "Several studies have evaluated specific areas of cognitive dysfunction in school-age children exposed prenatally to alcohol. Researchers have substantiated: (a) short term memory deficits in verbal and visual material; (b) inadequate processing of inf ormation, reflected b sparse integration of information and poor quality of responses; (c)

The Ethics of the Media

The purpose of the media has become an ongoing question since the large amount of conflicts between the consumer and media. Why is the original purpose of the media so damn hard to figure out? It is time to confront this issue instead of blowing it off by saying, â€Å"We can never change the media, so why bother? † What kind of chickenshit statement is that?! If there are so many people with so much power, surely one of them realizes the downward spiral of the ethics of the media. I feel my sole purpose of this paper is to tell everyone my ideas and viewpoints on censoring the media. Ooooooo, censor. What a bad word that is when used in the same sentence with media. So many people believe censorship is a bad thing, but there is no other solution in stopping the â€Å"bad press. † When I sit back and look at the stories about stories that are bad and offending to someone, I realize something needs to be done. The media is out of control. True, there are many informing and needed stories, but, my god, how many times a day to we need to hear and read about how much money O. J. Simpson has to pay the family of Ronald Goldman? We, as consumers, need to sit back and ask ourselves, â€Å"What was the point of hearing or reading that story? Back to the censor issue. I, as an aspiring journalist, do not believe in total and complete censorship of the media, but also, as an aspiring journalist, I am embarrassed of some of the stories that are run, for instance, when the crime scene photos of Jon-Benet Ramsey were run in Globe magazine. Was there not anyone, an editor, a writer, or even a custodian at Globe who thought, â€Å"Uh, oh. These photos may get us into some trouble. † Was there not a single sole who had enough ethics to try and stop these pictures from being printed? This is where censorship comes in. If I could do anything in the world, I would first, stop world hunger, and second set up some guidelines and laws that the media must obey. Guidelines such as, no digging through peoples trash and no peeking in windows. Of course, we know that by law, there is to be no peeking in windows, or over fences, but there is no one at the editors desk to implicate these laws. There is supposed to be someone there to prevent these stories from running, but remember, their paycheck depends on how many copies are sold or how high the ratings are. This â€Å"censor person† needs to have a set wage. If there was someone to stop these types of occurrences, half of my problems with the media would be taken care of. This may sound like a lame solution, but we need to start somewhere. Obviously this is not a complete solution to these problems with the media, so the next step would be to start using the editors for weeding out the stories that are not giving some type of information that the consumer wants and needs to hear or read. This is also easier said than done. This solution also brings up questions like, how does the editor know what stories the consumer wants to hear or read about? That is the responsibility of the media. Let them take polls and give every effort to find out what we want. Journalism will only survive if it establishes a more valuable and clearly defined mission, (Morality of Mass Media, Ellen Hume. ) I could write a book about all the things I want to see changed in the media before I become a part of it, but I will not. There should be a line drawn so that the media can be punished for their wrongdoing. Many people agree that there should be a line drawn and like it or not, that line is called censorship. Our founding fathers did not want censorship on the media, but they probably did not think that the media would be doing such a crummy job. I do not want to say that all media is doing a bad job. Overall, they are doing a fairly good job, but there is still a large amount of dirty press that needs to be cleaned up.

NAB case study Essay

Question 1: List one strength and weakness for each cultural perspective described in this case study. There are numerous cultural perspectives that have been provided. Three major cultural perspectives have been identified, these include: the integration perspective, ambiguity perspective, as well as the differentiation perspective. The Strength of the cultural perspectives that is described in NAB: Cultural Change Program: Integration Perspective at NAB: this is the most widely applied cultural change perspective. It may be reflected in highly visible and tangible manner all through the organization. It should be noted that there has to be accord in the entire firm and it may be reflected via diverse mediums of organizations such as performance metrics and targets, informal and formal rules, business strategies, as well as management practices that govern traditions stories, together with manifestations. In the situation of NAB, business strategies were client- focused. For the creation of the visible manifestations of the firm’s desired culture, the priorities were observed within the mission, vision statements, as well as in the strategic objectives (Allaire and Firsirotu, 2006). Differentiation Perspective: It views culture to incorporate various cultures. Given that it is highly focused on the inconsistencies that are got at the center of culture, it provides organization the opportunity of correcting inconsistencies thorough having better culture. When the inconsistencies are recognized, a number of cultural initiators may be identified with the firm, both externally and internally (Deal and Kennedy, 2002). Ambiguity Perspective: The perspective, neither adheres to the differentiation nor the integration viewpoint of cultural perspective. On the contrary, it offers the suggestion that the  relationships that exist between cultural manifestations are not having highly effective clarity; rather, they are lacking clarity. With them, there is complete vagueness, as well as a contradiction. Individuals within any firm may have common values and views that they share with one another. However, on some values or views, they may differ. It is observed to be a highly realistic perspective concerning culture since it enables the workers to bring forward the issues that they are disagreeing with the line managers. When the issues are established, via the ambiguity perspective, various steps might be taken in order to resolve them. This will also ensure that the employees are satisfied. Besides, the employees will be involved in the organization’s culture (Denison, 2007). Weakness for the cultural perspectives that are mentioned within NAB: Cultural Change Program: The Integration Perspective: This perspective’s weakness is that when the integration perspective is having any trait that is unfavorable, it will be transferred everywhere within the organization since it is always present within the entire organization. In some cases, culture persists in manners that are invisible and which cannot be detected in the firm. This can also be very harmful (Denison, 2007). Differentiation perspective: through this perspective, various inconsistencies that lie at the culture’s focal point, both internally and externally can be identified. Its weakness is that culture is depicted to be a group of several manifestations that may be contradictory to one another (Denison, Cho, and Young, 2000). Ambiguity Perspective: with the ambiguity perspective, employees may agree on certain management issues. However, in other instances, they may pretend to be ignorant. In some cases, they might be completely indifferent. At the same time, they may oppose the entire managerial line. Therefore, the ambiguity perspective in organizations always brings various issues that may make the employees within the organization to be dissatisfied (Jain & Thomson, 2008). Question 2: Complete a force field analysis using Kurt Lewin’s change management model clearly illustrating the driving and restraining forces for change in a force field diagram. The Kurt Lewin’s Change Management Model Force Field Analysis (Lewin, 1951) ‘Force Field Analysis’ Model that was developed by Lewin Kurt is highly  beneficial in providing a description of the present performance level. Force Field Analysis is highly useful technique for decision-making. It helps organizations in making various decisions through the analysis of various forces that are for and against a given change. In addition, through it, organizations have the capacity to effectively communicate the reason that is behind the decisions that are made. It can be applied for two main purposes: deciding whether to proceed with the change; and also to enhance success chances through strengthening various forces that supports the change and also weakening various forces that are against the change (Lewin, 1951). In addition, Force Field Analysis refers to a tool that is applied in order to analyze systematically the various factors that are got within problems that are very complex. It always frames various problems in terms of pressures or the various factors supporting the status quo, as well as the pressures supporting change in the direction that is desired. A factor may be individuals, attitudes, resources, regulations, traditions, needs, values, desires among others. Being a change management tool, it plays a major role in helping in the identification of the various factors, which have to be monitored and addressed for change to be highly successful (Lewin, 1951). Procedure: Step 1: Definition of the Problem In this step, organizations determine the nature of their present situation which is not acceptable, and which requires modification. It is always very prudent to separate specific problem from the things, which are working very well (Maslen and Platts, 1994). Step 2: Definition of the Change Objective This stage entails the determination of the desired situation, which is worth working to attain. There is need for organizations to be very specific (Maslen and Platts, 1994). Step 3: Identification of the Driving Forces This stage entails the determination of the various pressures or factors which support change in the direction that is desired. It also entails determining the forces’ relative strengths. In addition, the driving forcesshould be placed on a chart on Force Field Analysis diagram in labeled arrows with the arrow’s length reflecting each force’s relative strength. It is also very prudent to determine the interrelationships between the various driving forces. Step 4: Identification of the Restraining Forces At this stage, it is very prudent to determine the pressures or factors which resist the change that is proposed. These forces should be represented in the diagram like the ones of the driving forces. The interrelationships between the restraining forces should also be determined (Maslen and Platts, 1994). Step 5: Development of a Comprehensive Change Strategy The diagram that is created in stage three, as well as stage four reflect the thing that can be referred to as a quasi-stationary equilibrium state. Though this is a state that is comparatively stable, movement may be attained through changing the various factors that are presently contributing to the equilibrium. It should be noted that change might occur due to a combination of any these: strengthening one of the various driving forces, as well as the addition of new driving forces, reducing or removing the restraining forces (Lewin, 1951). The Driving Forces are always positive reasonable, economical, reasonable, and conscious. On the other hand, the Restraining Forces are always negative emotional, social, unconscious, psychological, as well as emotional. When organizations are handling dealing with a change or when they are managing change or when they are reacting to given change, the two set of the forces ought to be considered. Lewin made the suggestion that to in order make change to be very easy, as well as long lasting the various forces that are working against the given change ought to be minimized instead of increasing the forces that are for the given change. He also made the suggestion that force modification will be beneficial in ensuring the maintenance of the status quo in a very easy manner instead of changing or instead of increasing the change forces (Thomas, 1985). The above steps can be reduced into three steps: Step 1: Unfreezing: in this step, the strength of the forces that are mandating the present equilibrium is reduced. Step 2: Moving: in this step,the new values of the organization, behaviors, as well as attitudes are developed. They are beneficial in helping to move the firm forward. Step 3: Refreezing: in this stage, when the changes have been made, the various forces ought to be stabilized. This is to ensure that a new equilibrium is maintained (Miner, 2007). However, in some cases, it is always criticized because when an organization is within an environment that is rapidly moving, it will not have the capacity to ‘refreeze’. In a case like that, refreezing will make the organization to be staid and stale. Lewin points out that Refreezing ought not to be viewed as a permanent phase, but a short term phase. In addition, it is highly significant for obtaining certain types of stability in organizations (Maslen and Platts, 1994). The arrow lengths are depicting the quantity of the forces. When a given change is implemented within an organization, the point of equilibrium is moved. For the movement of the equilibrium, driving forces must be increased or added. In addition, resistance forces ought to be reduced or removed (Thomas, 1985). On the contrary, when the driving forces are enhanced, the intensity of resistance will also be enhanced. Hence, it is always good to minimize the resistance. This may be done through the use of various techniques such as motivation, commitment, as well as involvement (Maslen and Platts, 1994). Question 3: which cultural change perspective was adopted by NAB during its change program? The Australian Prudential Regulatory Authority (APRA) has identified numerous limitations in the bank’s internal control framework. In addition, there has also been the claim that various cultural issues lay at the center of the collapse of NAB. In order to obtain an enhanced comprehension of the processes and construct of the entity, effective analysis of the culture through the application of symbolism should be done. On the contrary, analyzing culture through the application of symbolism always lacks measurement scale; hence, it does not offer a ready-made formula to be applied in order to mea sure change, analysis, as well as improvement. In addition, it is always believed that individuals do not have the capacity to manage the things that they do not have the capacity to comprehend. Therefore, this is the main reason as to why researchers, as well as practitioners must depend on the functionalist-integrative viewpoint of cultural change in order to get a much deeper insight into culture’s nature, as well as how culture may be managed effectively in order to attain  the goals that are desired. The present, as well as the former executives of the bank share the functionalist-integrative perspective of culture. This should form a basis for APRA and PriceWaterhouse Coopers (PwC) to carry out proper investigations into the official losses of the Banks Trading. Functionalist-integrative viewpoint of culture lays much emphasis on various factors that are found to be prevalent within the entire organization. On the contrary, there is likelihood that foreign currency trading room where losses were incurred by the bank was totally distinct subculture to the firm. This illustrates that trading room of the bank was existing as a subculture to the firm, something th at offers the suggestion that rogue traders always operate within functionalist-differentiation culture (Sorenson, 2002). However, as illustrated by Dellaportas, Cooper & Braica (2007), a research that is focused on the bank’s foreign currency options trading room is attempting to adopt the integration perspective; however, it is at a very low level analysis. However the differentiation perspective is established to be better in the analysis of the relationships that exists between several subcultures in the organization. The multiple subcultures point out inconsistent cultural manifestations rather than being focused on a given subculture. Hence, it is established that the functionalist-integrative viewpoint is highly applicable and effective in the analysis of the culture within a single organizational department given that is its highly applicable, as well as effective on an organizational-wide basis (Dellaportas, Cooper & Braica, (2007; Graetz, Rimmer, Lawrence and Smith, 2006). It should also be pointed out that integration viewpoint is highly opted by National Australian Bank during the change program. The steps that were taken by the firm in order to ensure cultural change include: Readjusting the major priorities in order to point out that National Australian Bank is an organization that is focused on the clients. Believing in making investments in its reputation, its people, as well as its culture Commencing to differentiate via its reputation and culture in order to ensure that their employees, customers, as well as the community benefits. Making visible manifestations of the culture via its visions, mission, as well as strategic objectives statements being reflected on whole portfolio of National Australian Bank group. Re-launching tangible change initiatives of National Australian Bank brand with an innovative, as  well as a fresh logo. Regaining the public’s confidence through launching the brand and lobo with the Melbourne Commonwealth gam es of the year 2006. The bank was the top sponsor. Focusing on various community developments ‘Developing various ‘team-oriented ‘ structures Question 4: what would be your future recommendations to the CEO or HR team at NAB? There are numerous things that need to be done by the bank’s CEO, HR team in order to ensure its success in the future. First, there is a need for the new leaders that are appointed by National Australian Bank to make conscious efforts in order to effectively implement cultural changes in a manner that is highly effective. They should not focus mainly on the process; however, they should lay much focus on the gravity of the issue (Fairbairn, 2005). Additionally, within the firm, there were no clear responsibilities, as well as accountabilities. There is a need for the management of the firm to ensure that this is seriously fixed in order to ensure that change is effectively implemented y the organization. Additionally, NAB is having a good news culture that ensures the prevention of bad news from arising. The issue is very serious since it is always good to adequately address bad news or problems in their nascent stage instead of waiting for them to be bigger. On the same note, NAB adheres to a Bureaucratic culture. It always tends to overcomplicate things. Therefore, through making a change, as well as enhancing the firm’s culture, there will be a positive difference. Generally, cultural changes always come along with very deep logic of personal commitment. The new CEO should view himself as the â€Å"Chief Ethics Officer† instead of a CEO (Trevino, Hartman and Brown, 2000). Being a Chef Ethics Officer, the CEO should convey strict and strong ethics message that will help the co-leaders. In addition, being a leader, the CEO should have the knowledge of his responsibilities and powers. When these recommendations are put into place by the leadership of NAB, they will have the capacity to address the issues in a highly systematic manner. In addition, they will have the capacity to overcome the crisis. In addition, they will have the capacity to restore their brand image. The firm should also portray itself to be more focused on their customers rather than on profits given that when they portray themselves to be profit centered, they will engage in various activities that are unethical. Cases study 2 Question 1 As pointed out by Child (2005), when determining if a team or a firm over- organized or under-organized, there are always strengths, as well as concerns which have to be taken into consideration. The strengths which should be looked into include: very high commitment to the firm, as well as its mission; norms of straightforwardness and honesty; smart, as well as articulate management; very high interest in learning, as well as growth; and general manager and founders as role-models (Bradford & Burke, 2005). In addition, various firms will always face constant struggles in order to shun the extremes of over-organizing and under-organizing. Every service provider always has a built-in inclination to get off balance organizationally on a single side or to another. The firms that are under-organized, their leaders always struggle mainly with efficiency: how things can be done. Because of inadequate organizing, organizational leaders always get it very hard to pull the correct â€Å"levers† and also to push the correct â€Å"buttons† in order to make the firms work (Bradford & Burke, 2005). Some of the various concerns which have to be looked into include individuals and systems failing to keep pace with the growth; lack of very clear structure, roles, as well as teamwork; lack of common direction, mission, as well as priorities; individuals are stretched to their limit; and the general manager and founders are both firm’s greatest strength, as well as the greatest weakness (DeKler, 2007). There are several other signs of under-organization. administrators and staff are not sure of the activities that they should delegate and thee individuals to whom they should delegate; organizational members are unsure where they can serve best and where they can â€Å"plug in†; huge expenditures in terms of time, as well as effort is needed in order to get various programs adopted, as well as implemented; work load is distributed unevenly —some leaders and members are overworked whereas others are entirely left out; Leaders are very slow to respond and to discern to the members’ needs; Members of the organization are faintly aware of the congregational goals yet they are not well informed regarding the daily activities; The firm experiences huge programs overlapping, as well as consequent effort duplication (Carter, 2004). A firm that is unbalanced by excess organization is always challenged by  effectiveness, the things that ought to be done. Over-organized firms have the capacity to move efficiently to make sure that various things are properly done. In addition, work is delegated smoothly, various job descriptions are effectively followed, and besides, committees deliberate (Schultz, D.P., Schultz, 2006). What are the implications for planning an OD intervention? In the case, intervention planning was required since no individual took responsibility for anything. In addition, they had no structures or guidelines to follow in their work to the latter. Ben and Jerry needed to make it a family and fun work environment. To do this, they did not have the means to put authority in to force. When things got broken, no person could man up to take responsibility for the actions. Had Ben and Jerry ensured that there was authority over fun, it could have made the firm to avid this. If authority was replaced with friendship, they could have avoided the scenario. Is team building a good way to launch an OD effort in this case? Other approaches? Other than team building, several other approaches can be adopted by the firm. Among the various interventions that can be taken into consideration include: Organization Confrontation Meeting: through this change technique, the members of the organization will be mobilized in order to identify various problems, set various action targets, besides commencing to work on various problems. In the case, it will most likely represent numerous meetings between the feuding groups within the organization. On the contrary, the data from the case offers the suggestion that the firm is not prepared for this kind of intervention (Murray, 2005). Inter-group relations: The interventions are specifically designed to enhance interactions between diverse groups, as well as departments within organizations. Microcosm group intervention entails a very small group of individuals whose backgrounds is closely matching the problems of the organization that are being looked into. Inter-group conflict model generally entails a consultant aiding two groups to comprehend the origin of their conflict besides choosing highly relevant solutions (Western, 2010). The various issues that face the firm are highly visible along alignment lines, focus, as well as leadership instead of a true conflict. Large-group Interventions: The interventions entails gathering several stakeholders into  a big meeting in order to clarify significant values; develop fresh working ways; to articulate a fresh organizational vision and also to provide solutions to various pressing problems of the organization. This appears like a very viable option majorly after a team building with some of the top team management. Trying this intervention prior to team building will have similar problems to confrontation meeting. It should be noted that OD is not a science, which may be placed into concise prescriptive. Ben & Jerry experienced issues that affected the entire organization. The firm’s board was not fully prepared to tackle its own issues. In addition, they become united in order to offer the leadership which was needed by the rest of the firm. Therefore, the starting point was the managers. The outdoor methods applied in this case may be effective activities for teambuilding. The other optio n applicable for the firm could have been intervention with the founders and the board and confronting them for lack of leadership, as well as their incapacity to effectively handle their own issues. What next steps would you recommend? After the formation of the management team and its alignment with the founders and the board, there is a splendid opportunity of getting other individuals within the organization to be aligned with the management. In addition, they should be involved in the newly established goals. When the system is highly organized around certain goals, as well as missions, all individuals within the organization will work on the bigger issues. 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